Data Structures and Algorithms Interview Questions in Hyderabad

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Space complexity is the total memory an algorithm uses relative to input size, including the input itself. Auxiliary space counts only the extra memory beyond the input, such as temporary arrays, hash maps and the recursion stack. Merge sort needs O(n) auxiliary space for merging, while heap sort needs O(1). Interviewers usually mean auxiliary space when they ask you to reduce space usage.

HR wants an employee list sorted by department, and by salary within each department. How would you do it?

Sorting, Searching and BacktrackingEasy

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Either sort once with a composite key, department first and salary second, using a comparator in Java or a tuple key in Python, or do two passes with a stable sort: first by salary, then by department, relying on stability to keep salary order within departments. The single composite-key sort is clearer. Both are O(n log n), and I would clarify whether salary should be ascending or descending.

Rotate an array to the right by k steps in place.

Arrays, Strings and HashingMedium

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def rotate(nums, k): n = len(nums) k %= n def reverse(l, r): while l < r: nums[l], nums[r] = nums[r], nums[l] l += 1 r -= 1 reverse(0, n - 1) # reverse all reverse(0, k - 1) # reverse first k reverse(k, n - 1) # reverse the rest # [1,2,3,4,5,6,7], k=3 -> [5,6,7,1,2,3,4]; O(n) time, O(1) space

Detect whether a linked list has a cycle and return the node where the cycle begins.

Linked Lists, Stacks and QueuesMedium

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def detect_cycle(head): slow = fast = head while fast and fast.next: slow = slow.next fast = fast.next.next if slow is fast: # cycle found slow = head while slow is not fast: # move both one step slow = slow.next fast = fast.next return slow # start of the cycle return None # O(n) time, O(1) space

How do DFS and BFS differ in memory use on a tree?

Trees and Binary Search TreesMedium

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DFS uses a stack, either the call stack or an explicit one, holding at most the height of the tree, so O(h) memory: about log n for balanced trees but n for skewed ones. BFS uses a queue holding an entire level, up to about n over 2 nodes in the last level of a complete tree. So DFS is lighter for wide balanced trees, while BFS is natural for shortest paths and level-wise processing.

Compare singly, doubly and circular linked lists.

Linked Lists, Stacks and QueuesEasy

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A singly linked list node points only to the next node, using less memory but allowing traversal in one direction. A doubly linked list node also points to the previous node, enabling backward traversal and O(1) deletion of a given node, which LRU caches need. A circular list connects the last node back to the first, useful for round-robin scheduling and buffers. Each extra pointer adds memory and update complexity.

Write an iterative inorder traversal of a binary tree.

Trees and Binary Search TreesEasy

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def inorder(root): result, stack = [], [] node = root while node or stack: while node: # go as far left as possible stack.append(node) node = node.left node = stack.pop() result.append(node.val) # visit node = node.right # then the right subtree return result # O(n) time, O(h) space; no recursion limit issues

What is tail recursion and do Java and Python optimise it?

Complexity Analysis and RecursionMedium

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A call is tail recursive when the recursive call is the very last action, so nothing remains to be done after it returns, as in a factorial that carries an accumulator. Some languages reuse the same stack frame for such calls, turning recursion into a loop. Neither Java nor CPython performs tail call optimisation, so deep tail recursion still overflows; convert it to a loop manually.

What are the complexities of heap operations, and why does building a heap take O(n)?

Heaps, Priority Queues and GreedyMedium

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Peek at the root is O(1). Insert adds at the end and sifts up, and extract removes the root, moves the last element to the top and sifts down, both O(log n). Building a heap from n elements by sifting down from the last internal node to the root takes O(n), not O(n log n), because most nodes are near the bottom and move only a few levels; the sum of heights is linear.

You must merge two sorted arrays where the first array has enough empty space at the end for the second. How would you do it in place?

Arrays, Strings and HashingMedium

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Merging from the front would overwrite unread elements, so merge from the back. Use three pointers: the last real element of the first array, the last element of the second, and the last slot of the first array. Repeatedly place the larger of the two candidates at the write position and move pointers left. When the second array is exhausted, the rest is already in place. This takes O(m plus n) time and O(1) space.

You can use an O(n log n) algorithm with high constant factors or a simple O(n squared) one. For what inputs might the O(n squared) choice be better?

Complexity Analysis and RecursionHard

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Big-O ignores constants, so for small n the simpler algorithm can be faster in practice. Insertion sort beats merge sort for arrays below roughly 16 to 32 elements, which is why library sorts such as Timsort switch to insertion sort for small runs. I would benchmark on realistic input sizes, choose the asymptotically better algorithm when n can grow, and use a hybrid when both ranges occur.

What is topological sorting and how is it done?

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A topological order lists the vertices of a DAG so every edge goes from earlier to later, such as an order to take courses. Kahn's algorithm computes in-degrees, pushes zero in-degree vertices into a queue and repeatedly removes them while decreasing neighbours' in-degrees; if not all vertices are output, a cycle exists. The DFS method adds a vertex to a list after visiting its descendants and reverses the list. Both are O(V plus E).

How is the longest common subsequence computed with DP?

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Let dp[i][j] be the LCS length of the first i characters of A and the first j characters of B. If A[i-1] equals B[j-1], dp[i][j] is dp[i-1][j-1] plus 1; otherwise it is the maximum of dp[i-1][j] and dp[i][j-1]. Fill the table row by row in O(m times n) time. Backtracking from dp[m][n] recovers the actual subsequence. LCS underlies diff tools and DNA sequence comparison.

You must build autocomplete for a search box over one million product names. Which data structure would you use?

Trees and Binary Search TreesMedium

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I would use a trie where each node stores, besides children, the top few most popular completions under that prefix. Then typing a prefix walks L nodes and returns precomputed suggestions instantly, without exploring the whole subtree. Memory can be reduced with a compressed radix trie. For typo tolerance or ranking by many signals, a search engine with prefix indexes is more practical at large scale.

Find the next greater element for every element of an array.

Linked Lists, Stacks and QueuesMedium

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def next_greater(nums): res = [-1] * len(nums) stack = [] # indices with decreasing values for i, x in enumerate(nums): while stack and nums[stack[-1]] < x: res[stack.pop()] = x stack.append(i) return res # [4, 5, 2, 25] -> [5, 25, 25, -1] # Each index is pushed and popped once: O(n)

An array of size 100000 must answer 100000 queries asking for the sum between two indices. What approach would you use?

Arrays, Strings and HashingMedium

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Recomputing each sum is O(n) per query, about 10 to the power 10 operations in total, which is too slow. Since the array does not change, I would build a prefix sum array once in O(n) and answer each query in O(1) as pre[r+1] minus pre[l], giving O(n plus q) overall. If the array also receives updates, I would switch to a Fenwick tree or segment tree for O(log n) updates and queries.

How do you recognise a DP problem and define its state?

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Signals include asking for a minimum, maximum, count of ways or whether something is possible, with choices at each step that affect later options. Start from brute-force recursion and ask what parameters fully describe a subproblem, such as index, remaining capacity or last chosen item; those become the state. Then write the transition between states, the base cases and the order of computation, and check the state count times transition cost fits limits.

Explain best, average and worst case complexity using quicksort.

Complexity Analysis and RecursionMedium

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Best case is the minimum work over inputs of size n, worst case the maximum and average case the expected work over typical inputs. Quicksort averages O(n log n) because random pivots split arrays reasonably evenly. Its worst case is O(n squared) when the pivot is always the smallest or largest element, such as sorted input with a first-element pivot. Random pivots or median-of-three make the worst case very unlikely.

What is backtracking?

Sorting, Searching and BacktrackingEasy

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Backtracking builds a solution step by step and abandons a partial solution as soon as it cannot lead to a valid answer, then undoes the last choice and tries the next. It is a DFS over the space of choices. It solves permutations, combinations, subsets, N-Queens, Sudoku and word search. The worst case is often exponential, so good pruning, such as checking constraints early, is what makes it practical.

Find the GCD of two numbers using the Euclidean algorithm.

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// Java static long gcd(long a, long b) { return b == 0 ? a : gcd(b, a % b); } static long lcm(long a, long b) { return a / gcd(a, b) * b; // divide first to avoid overflow } // Runs in O(log(min(a, b))) because remainders shrink quickly.

What are a queue, a deque and a circular queue?

Linked Lists, Stacks and QueuesEasy

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A queue is first-in, first-out with enqueue at the back and dequeue at the front, used in BFS, task scheduling and buffering. A deque allows insertion and removal at both ends in O(1), as in Python collections.deque or Java ArrayDeque. A circular queue uses a fixed array with head and tail indices that wrap around modulo capacity, avoiding shifting and wasted space, common in ring buffers and OS schedulers.

A search box must suggest the closest dictionary words when a user makes a typo. How would you approach it?

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Compute edit distance between the typed word and candidate words, suggesting those within distance 1 or 2. Running O(m times n) DP against a whole dictionary is slow, so narrow candidates first using a BK-tree indexed by edit distance, a trie with bounded edit distance search, or n-gram indexes. Then rank candidates by distance and word popularity. Keyboard-aware substitution costs can improve suggestions further.

Implement Dijkstra's algorithm with a priority queue.

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import heapq def dijkstra(graph, src): # graph: {node: [(neighbour, weight), ...]} dist = {src: 0} heap = [(0, src)] while heap: d, u = heapq.heappop(heap) if d > dist.get(u, float('inf')): continue # stale entry for v, w in graph.get(u, []): nd = d + w if nd < dist.get(v, float('inf')): dist[v] = nd heapq.heappush(heap, (nd, v)) return dist # O((V + E) log V); weights must be non-negative

Compute the length of the longest common subsequence of two strings.

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// Java static int lcs(String a, String b) { int m = a.length(), n = b.length(); int[][] dp = new int[m + 1][n + 1]; for (int i = 1; i <= m; i++) { for (int j = 1; j <= n; j++) { if (a.charAt(i - 1) == b.charAt(j - 1)) dp[i][j] = dp[i - 1][j - 1] + 1; else dp[i][j] = Math.max(dp[i - 1][j], dp[i][j - 1]); } } return dp[m][n]; } // lcs(abcde, ace) = 3; O(m * n) time and space

Design a rate limiter that allows at most 100 requests per user in any rolling 60-second window.

Linked Lists, Stacks and QueuesHard

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For each user keep a deque of request timestamps. On a request, pop timestamps older than now minus 60 seconds from the front, then allow the request only if fewer than 100 remain, pushing the new timestamp at the back. This sliding window log is exact but uses memory per request. At scale I would use a sliding window counter or token bucket stored in Redis with atomic operations to save memory and work across servers.

List common complexity classes from fastest to slowest with examples.

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O(1): array index access or a hash lookup on average. O(log n): binary search. O(n): linear scan. O(n log n): merge sort and heap sort. O(n squared): nested loops over pairs, as in bubble sort. O(2 to the power n): generating all subsets. O(n factorial): generating all permutations. For n around one lakh, anything up to O(n log n) is comfortable, while O(n squared) usually times out.

Merge K sorted linked lists using a min-heap.

Heaps, Priority Queues and GreedyMedium

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import heapq def merge_k_lists(lists): heap = [] for i, node in enumerate(lists): if node: heapq.heappush(heap, (node.val, i, node)) # i breaks ties dummy = tail = ListNode() while heap: val, i, node = heapq.heappop(heap) tail.next = node tail = node if node.next: heapq.heappush(heap, (node.next.val, i, node.next)) return dummy.next # O(N log K) for N total nodes

Why are you looking for a change from your current job?

Sorting, Searching and BacktrackingMedium

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Situation: in my current role I have learned a lot maintaining internal tools for two years. Task: I want to grow into harder engineering problems. Action: I have been strengthening my data structures, system design and backend skills through projects and by taking ownership of performance work in my team. Result: I am now ready for a role with larger scale and more technical depth, which is why this position appeals to me.

Explain basic binary tree terminology: root, leaf, height and depth.

Trees and Binary Search TreesEasy

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The root is the top node with no parent. A leaf has no children. The depth of a node is the number of edges from the root to it, and the height of a node is the number of edges on the longest path down to a leaf; the tree's height is the root's height. In a binary tree each node has at most two children. A tree with n nodes has n minus 1 edges.

A recursive DFS in Python crashes with RecursionError on a deep input. How do you fix it?

Complexity Analysis and RecursionMedium

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CPython limits recursion depth to about 1000 by default. Raising the limit with sys.setrecursionlimit works for moderate depth but can crash the interpreter on very deep inputs because the C stack is limited. The reliable fix is to rewrite the DFS iteratively with an explicit stack, pushing nodes and processing them in a loop. In Java the same issue appears as StackOverflowError and has the same solution.

What does binary search on the answer mean?

Sorting, Searching and BacktrackingHard

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Instead of searching an array, you binary search over possible answers when there is a monotonic feasibility check: if capacity X works, any larger capacity also works. Examples include minimum ship capacity to deliver within D days, minimum eating speed, or the largest minimum distance between placed items. Each check is often O(n) greedy, so total time is O(n log of the answer range), which is very efficient.

How does Huffman coding work?

Heaps, Priority Queues and GreedyHard

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Huffman coding builds an optimal prefix-free binary code for compression. Put each character with its frequency into a min-heap. Repeatedly remove the two least frequent nodes, merge them into a new node whose frequency is their sum, and push it back. The final tree gives codes: left edges are 0 and right edges are 1, so frequent characters get shorter codes. It runs in O(n log n) and is used in ZIP and JPEG.

Tell me about a time you worked with people from other teams to solve a complex problem.

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Situation: delivery route suggestions in our app were slow and the data team blamed the backend while we blamed the data. Task: find the real issue. Action: I set up a joint session, we traced one slow request end to end and found the graph was rebuilt from raw tables on every call. I proposed caching the adjacency lists, and the data team added change notifications. Result: response time dropped from 3 seconds to 200 milliseconds.

Write recursive Fibonacci and then optimise it with memoisation.

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from functools import lru_cache def fib_naive(n): # O(2^n) time if n < 2: return n return fib_naive(n - 1) + fib_naive(n - 2) @lru_cache(maxsize=None) def fib_memo(n): # O(n) time, O(n) space if n < 2: return n return fib_memo(n - 1) + fib_memo(n - 2) def fib_iter(n): # O(n) time, O(1) space a, b = 0, 1 for _ in range(n): a, b = b, a + b return a

Users enter formulas with brackets in a spreadsheet tool. How do you validate that the brackets are balanced?

Linked Lists, Stacks and QueuesEasy

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Scan the formula once with a stack. Push every opening bracket; on a closing bracket, check that the stack is not empty and its top is the matching opening type, then pop. Ignore other characters. At the end the stack must be empty. This is O(n) time and handles nested mixes such as parentheses inside square brackets. To show useful errors, record the position of the first mismatch or unclosed bracket.

What is the Union-Find data structure and what optimisations make it fast?